Social Capital and Gender Inequality in Contemporary China: A Quantitative Analysis from Structure-Cognition Paradigm
Main Article Content
Keywords
work-family balance, gender inequality, social trust, network strength, social exchange
Abstract
The dilemma of gender inequality is embodied not only in the potential confrontation under patriarchal disciplines in both household and workplace, but also the pursuit of work-family balance. This paper argues how social capital contributes to or constrains gender equality from a structural-cognitive paradigm. Three sub-concepts of social capital, namely social trust, network strength, and social exchange are included. Gender inequality is categorized as gender inequality in the family, gender inequality in the workplace, and female work-family balance. The findings suggest that social trust significantly contributes to individual support for household gender equality and female work-family balance. Besides, higher levels of network strength will lead to perception of indiscrimination between male and female in terms of working capacities. However, the practice of social exchange brings patriarchal regularities back to all three dimensions of gender inequalities, coming from the compromise and practice of gender subordination, objectification, or discrimination in exchanging favors. The article's conclusions demonstrate the necessity of bringing a typological argument of gender inequality and a structural-cognitive paradigm of social capital altogether.
References
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Brunner, E. (2013). Impotence, nostalgia, and objectification: Patriarchal visual rhetoric to contain women. Visual Culture & Gender, 8, 31-45.
Chen Y., & Fan, X. (2019). Subjective social status, income inequality and subjective perceptions of mobility (2003-2013). Social sciences in china, 40(3), 70-88.
Chopra, R. (2006). Invisible men: Masculinity, sexuality, and male domestic Labor. Men and Masculinities, 9(2), 152-167.
Claridge, T. (2018). Dimensions of Social Capital-structural, cognitive, and relational. Social Capital Research, 1, 1-4.
Cohen, P. N. (2004). The Gender Division of Labor: “Keeping House” and Occupational Segregation in the United States. Gender & Society, 18(2), 239-252.
Coulson, M., Magas, B., & Wainwright, H. (1975). The housewife and her labour under capitalism: a critique. New Left Review, 89(1), 59-71.
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Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual review of psychology, 69, 275-298.
Elster, J. (1989). Nuts and bolts for the social sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Falcone, R., & Castelfranchi, C. (2001). Social trust: A cognitive approach. Trust and deception in virtual societies, 55-90.
Fei, X., Hamilton, G. G., & Zheng, W. (1992). From the soil: The foundations of Chinese society. Univ of California Press.
Fuhse, J. A. (2009). The meaning structure of social networks. Sociological Theory, 27(1), 51-73.
Fukuyama, F. (1996). Trust—the creation of social morality and prosperity.
Gimenez, M. E. (2001). Marxism, and class, gender, and race: Rethinking the trilogy. Race, Gender & Class, 23-33.
Grootaert, C., & Van Bastelaer, T. (Eds.). (2002). The role of social capital in development: An empirical assessment. Cambridge university press.
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research in organizational Behavior, 32, 113-135.
Hildebrand, L. K., Monteith, M. J., & Arriaga, X. B. (2023). The role of trust in reducing confrontation-related social costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Holvino, E. (2010). Intersections: The simultaneity of race, gender and class in organization studies. Gender, Work & Organization, 17(3), 248-277.
Huber, F. (2009). Social capital of economic clusters: Towards a network‐based conception of social resources. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 100(2), 160-170.
Johnson, S. K., & Lacerenza, C. N. (2018). Leadership is male-centric: Gender issues in the study of leadership. In What’s Wrong With Leadership? (pp. 121-137). Routledge.
Kroger, J. (1997). Gender and identity: The intersection of structure, content, and context. Sex roles, 36, 747-770.
Kanagaretnam, K., Mestelman, S., Nainar, K., & Shehata, M. (2009). The impact of social value orientation and risk attitudes on trust and reciprocity. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(3), 368-380.
Kuhn, A. (2013). Structures of patriarchy and capital in the family. In Feminism and Materialism (RLE Feminist Theory) (pp. 42-67). Routledge.
Li, C. (2005). prestige stratification in the contemporary China: Occupational prestige measures and socio-economic index. Sociological Study, 2, 74-102.
Lin, N. (2001). Guanxi: A conceptual analysis. Contributions in Sociology, 133, 153-166.
Lin, N. (2017). Building a network theory of social capital. Social capital, 3-28.
Lin, N., & Smith, J. (2001). Social capital : A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press
Lorber, J. (2018). The social construction of gender. In Inequality in the 21st Century (pp. 347-352). Routledge.
Manstead, A. S. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267-291.
Mshweshwe, L. (2020). Understanding domestic violence: masculinity, culture, traditions. Heliyon, 6(10).
Muniady, R. A. L., Mamun, A. A., Mohamad, M. R., Permarupan, P. Y., & Zainol, N. R. B. (2015). The effect of cognitive and relational social capital on structural social capital and micro-enterprise performance. Sage Open, 5(4), 2158244015611187.
Oakes, J. M., & Andrade, K. E. (2017). The measurement of socioeconomic status. Methods in social epidemiology, 18, 23-42.
Oskarsson, S., Dawes, C., Johannesson, M., & Magnusson, P. K. (2012). The genetic origins of the relationship between psychological traits and social trust. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 15(1), 21-33.
Pachucki, M. A., & Breiger, R. L. (2010). Cultural holes: Beyond relationality in social networks and culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 205-224.
Pachucki, M. C., & Breiger, R. L. (2023). Network theories. In Kivisto, P. (ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Social Theory, vol 2. Cambridge University Press.
Priola, V. (2007). Being female doing gender. Narratives of women in education management. Gender and Education, 19(1), 21-40.
Quddus, M., Goldsby, M., & Farooque, M. (2000). Trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity-a review article. Eastern Economic Journal, 26(1), 87-98.
Reimer, B., Lyons, T., Ferguson, N., & Polanco, G. (2008). Social capital as social relations: the contribution of normative structures. The Sociological Review, 56(2), 256-274.
Ren, Z., Yue, G., Xiao, W., & Fan, Q. (2022). The Influence of Subjective Socioeconomic Status on Life Satisfaction: The Chain Mediating Role of Social Equity and Social Trust. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), 15652.
Rhodes, C. J., & Keefe, E. M. J. (2007). Social network topology: a Bayesian approach. Journal of the operational research society, 58(12), 1605-1611.
Risman, B. J. (2018). Gender as a social structure (pp. 19-43). Springer International Publishing.
Ruan, J. (2017). Interaction rituals in guanxi practice and the role of instrumental li. Asian Studies Review, 41(4), 664-678.
Ruan, J. (2021). Motivations for ritual performance in bribery: Ethnographic case studies of the use of guanxi to gain school places in China. Current Sociology, 69(1), 41-58.
Stennis, K. B., & Aly, R. (2019). “I’m a Survivor”: Reconsidering Identity, Stigma, and Institutions for Domestic Violence. In Women and Inequality in the 21st Century (pp. 205-218). Routledge.
Stockard, J. (2006). Gender socialization. Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, 215-227.
Taccini, F., & Mannarini, S. (2023). An attempt to conceptualize the phenomenon of stigma toward intimate partner violence survivors: a systematic review. Behavioral Sciences, 13(3), 194.
Talbot, M. (2003). Gender stereotypes: Reproduction and challenge. The handbook of language and gender, 468-486.
Tannen, D. (1994). Gender and discourse. Oxford University Press.
Timberlake, S. (2005). Social capital and gender in the workplace. Journal of Management Development, 24(1), 34-44.
Villalonga-Olives, E., & Kawachi, I. (2015). The measurement of social capital. Gaceta sanitaria, 29(1), 62-64.
White, H. C. (2008). Identity and control: How social formations emerge. Princeton university press.
Yang, M. M. H. (1994). Gifts, favors, and banquets: The art of social relationships in China. Cornell University Press.
Yang, Y., & Gustafsson, J. E. (2004). Measuring socioeconomic status at individual and collective levels. Educational Research and Evaluation, 10(3), 259-288.
Zhang, L., & Jamil, M. B. (2015). Gender inequality in Chinese news discourse: A critical discourse perspective. International Journal of English Linguistics, 5(2), 36.
Zhang, W. (2007). Research on Social Capital in China: Conceptual, Operational Measurement, and Empirical Research Jiangsu Social Sciences (03),142-149.
Zhang, W.(2020).A Study on Gender Differences in Megacities. Social Science Journal (05):126-135+2.
Zhang, W.(2021).Reflection on Social Governance in Public Health Emergencies from the Perspective of Social Capital. Journal of Wuhan University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) 05.012.
Zhang, W., & Zhang, L. (2015). Social capital and marketization in the Chinese labor market. In Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Social Capital (pp. 358-376). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Bala, H. (2010). Socio-economic status and role of woman in Islam towards gender equality. Gender and Behaviour, 8(2), 3143-3151.
Baloyi, M. E. (2008). Patriarchal structures, a hindrance to women's rights (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria).
Barbalet, J. (2021b). Tripartite guanxi: resolving kin and non-kin discontinuities in Chinese connections. Theory and Society, 50(1), 151-173.
Barbalet, J. (2018). Guanxi as social exchange: Emotions, power and corruption. Sociology, 52(5), 934-949
Bartak, C. (2015). Held down through their bodies: Sexual objectification of women and the legitimization of patriarchy.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (2023). The social construction of reality. In Social theory re-wired (pp. 92-101). Routledge.
Bjerén, G. (2021). Gender and reproduction. In International migration, immobility and development (pp. 219-246). Routledge.
Bian, Y. (1997). Bringing strong ties back in: Indirect ties, network bridges, and job searches in China. American sociological review, 366-385.
Bian Y (2017) Guanxi capital and social eating in Chinese cities: Theoretical models and empirical analyses. In Lin N, Cook K and Burt R (eds) Social Capital: Theory and Research, Taylor and Francis, 275-295.
Bian Y., Zhang W., & Cheng, C. (2012). A Social Network Model of the Job-Search Process: Testing a Relational Effect Hypothesis. Society: Chinese Journal of Sociology/Shehui, 32(3).
Bian, Y., & Zhang, L. (2023). Economy and social capital, markets and social networks. The Routledge International Handbook of Economic Sociology, 392-406.
Bondi, L. (1998). Gender, class, and urban space: Public and private space in contemporary urban landscapes. Urban geography, 19(2), 160-185.
Brown, H. (2014). Marx on gender and the family: A summary. Monthly review, 66(2), 48-57.
Browne, I., & Misra, J. (2003). The intersection of gender and race in the labor market. Annual review of sociology, 29(1), 487-513.
Brunner, E. (2013). Impotence, nostalgia, and objectification: Patriarchal visual rhetoric to contain women. Visual Culture & Gender, 8, 31-45.
Chen Y., & Fan, X. (2019). Subjective social status, income inequality and subjective perceptions of mobility (2003-2013). Social sciences in china, 40(3), 70-88.
Chopra, R. (2006). Invisible men: Masculinity, sexuality, and male domestic Labor. Men and Masculinities, 9(2), 152-167.
Claridge, T. (2018). Dimensions of Social Capital-structural, cognitive, and relational. Social Capital Research, 1, 1-4.
Cohen, P. N. (2004). The Gender Division of Labor: “Keeping House” and Occupational Segregation in the United States. Gender & Society, 18(2), 239-252.
Coulson, M., Magas, B., & Wainwright, H. (1975). The housewife and her labour under capitalism: a critique. New Left Review, 89(1), 59-71.
Das, D., & Pathak, M. (2012). Gender equality: A core concept of socio-economic development in India. Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 1(4), 257-264.
Eldridge, J. (2003). News, truth and power. In Getting the Message (pp. 14-39). Routledge.
Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual review of psychology, 69, 275-298.
Elster, J. (1989). Nuts and bolts for the social sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Falcone, R., & Castelfranchi, C. (2001). Social trust: A cognitive approach. Trust and deception in virtual societies, 55-90.
Fei, X., Hamilton, G. G., & Zheng, W. (1992). From the soil: The foundations of Chinese society. Univ of California Press.
Fuhse, J. A. (2009). The meaning structure of social networks. Sociological Theory, 27(1), 51-73.
Fukuyama, F. (1996). Trust—the creation of social morality and prosperity.
Gimenez, M. E. (2001). Marxism, and class, gender, and race: Rethinking the trilogy. Race, Gender & Class, 23-33.
Grootaert, C., & Van Bastelaer, T. (Eds.). (2002). The role of social capital in development: An empirical assessment. Cambridge university press.
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research in organizational Behavior, 32, 113-135.
Hildebrand, L. K., Monteith, M. J., & Arriaga, X. B. (2023). The role of trust in reducing confrontation-related social costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Holvino, E. (2010). Intersections: The simultaneity of race, gender and class in organization studies. Gender, Work & Organization, 17(3), 248-277.
Huber, F. (2009). Social capital of economic clusters: Towards a network‐based conception of social resources. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 100(2), 160-170.
Johnson, S. K., & Lacerenza, C. N. (2018). Leadership is male-centric: Gender issues in the study of leadership. In What’s Wrong With Leadership? (pp. 121-137). Routledge.
Kroger, J. (1997). Gender and identity: The intersection of structure, content, and context. Sex roles, 36, 747-770.
Kanagaretnam, K., Mestelman, S., Nainar, K., & Shehata, M. (2009). The impact of social value orientation and risk attitudes on trust and reciprocity. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(3), 368-380.
Kuhn, A. (2013). Structures of patriarchy and capital in the family. In Feminism and Materialism (RLE Feminist Theory) (pp. 42-67). Routledge.
Li, C. (2005). prestige stratification in the contemporary China: Occupational prestige measures and socio-economic index. Sociological Study, 2, 74-102.
Lin, N. (2001). Guanxi: A conceptual analysis. Contributions in Sociology, 133, 153-166.
Lin, N. (2017). Building a network theory of social capital. Social capital, 3-28.
Lin, N., & Smith, J. (2001). Social capital : A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge University Press
Lorber, J. (2018). The social construction of gender. In Inequality in the 21st Century (pp. 347-352). Routledge.
Manstead, A. S. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267-291.
Mshweshwe, L. (2020). Understanding domestic violence: masculinity, culture, traditions. Heliyon, 6(10).
Muniady, R. A. L., Mamun, A. A., Mohamad, M. R., Permarupan, P. Y., & Zainol, N. R. B. (2015). The effect of cognitive and relational social capital on structural social capital and micro-enterprise performance. Sage Open, 5(4), 2158244015611187.
Oakes, J. M., & Andrade, K. E. (2017). The measurement of socioeconomic status. Methods in social epidemiology, 18, 23-42.
Oskarsson, S., Dawes, C., Johannesson, M., & Magnusson, P. K. (2012). The genetic origins of the relationship between psychological traits and social trust. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 15(1), 21-33.
Pachucki, M. A., & Breiger, R. L. (2010). Cultural holes: Beyond relationality in social networks and culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 205-224.
Pachucki, M. C., & Breiger, R. L. (2023). Network theories. In Kivisto, P. (ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Social Theory, vol 2. Cambridge University Press.
Priola, V. (2007). Being female doing gender. Narratives of women in education management. Gender and Education, 19(1), 21-40.
Quddus, M., Goldsby, M., & Farooque, M. (2000). Trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity-a review article. Eastern Economic Journal, 26(1), 87-98.
Reimer, B., Lyons, T., Ferguson, N., & Polanco, G. (2008). Social capital as social relations: the contribution of normative structures. The Sociological Review, 56(2), 256-274.
Ren, Z., Yue, G., Xiao, W., & Fan, Q. (2022). The Influence of Subjective Socioeconomic Status on Life Satisfaction: The Chain Mediating Role of Social Equity and Social Trust. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), 15652.
Rhodes, C. J., & Keefe, E. M. J. (2007). Social network topology: a Bayesian approach. Journal of the operational research society, 58(12), 1605-1611.
Risman, B. J. (2018). Gender as a social structure (pp. 19-43). Springer International Publishing.
Ruan, J. (2017). Interaction rituals in guanxi practice and the role of instrumental li. Asian Studies Review, 41(4), 664-678.
Ruan, J. (2021). Motivations for ritual performance in bribery: Ethnographic case studies of the use of guanxi to gain school places in China. Current Sociology, 69(1), 41-58.
Stennis, K. B., & Aly, R. (2019). “I’m a Survivor”: Reconsidering Identity, Stigma, and Institutions for Domestic Violence. In Women and Inequality in the 21st Century (pp. 205-218). Routledge.
Stockard, J. (2006). Gender socialization. Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, 215-227.
Taccini, F., & Mannarini, S. (2023). An attempt to conceptualize the phenomenon of stigma toward intimate partner violence survivors: a systematic review. Behavioral Sciences, 13(3), 194.
Talbot, M. (2003). Gender stereotypes: Reproduction and challenge. The handbook of language and gender, 468-486.
Tannen, D. (1994). Gender and discourse. Oxford University Press.
Timberlake, S. (2005). Social capital and gender in the workplace. Journal of Management Development, 24(1), 34-44.
Villalonga-Olives, E., & Kawachi, I. (2015). The measurement of social capital. Gaceta sanitaria, 29(1), 62-64.
White, H. C. (2008). Identity and control: How social formations emerge. Princeton university press.
Yang, M. M. H. (1994). Gifts, favors, and banquets: The art of social relationships in China. Cornell University Press.
Yang, Y., & Gustafsson, J. E. (2004). Measuring socioeconomic status at individual and collective levels. Educational Research and Evaluation, 10(3), 259-288.
Zhang, L., & Jamil, M. B. (2015). Gender inequality in Chinese news discourse: A critical discourse perspective. International Journal of English Linguistics, 5(2), 36.
Zhang, W. (2007). Research on Social Capital in China: Conceptual, Operational Measurement, and Empirical Research Jiangsu Social Sciences (03),142-149.
Zhang, W.(2020).A Study on Gender Differences in Megacities. Social Science Journal (05):126-135+2.
Zhang, W.(2021).Reflection on Social Governance in Public Health Emergencies from the Perspective of Social Capital. Journal of Wuhan University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) 05.012.
Zhang, W., & Zhang, L. (2015). Social capital and marketization in the Chinese labor market. In Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Social Capital (pp. 358-376). Edward Elgar Publishing.
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Zhang, H. (2024). Social Capital and Gender Inequality in Contemporary China: A Quantitative Analysis from Structure-Cognition Paradigm. Sociology, Philosophy and Psychology, 1(2), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.70267/fnxr7h63