Developing Intercultural Communicative Competence for Low-proficiency Junior High EFL Learners: an AI-mediated Pedagogic Framework
Main Article Content
Keywords
ICC development, ICC model, the IPIL Model, AI-mediated multimodality, low-proficiency junior high students
Abstract
Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) development for low-proficiency junior high students could be overlooked due to the persistent prioritization of language accuracy over intercultural understanding in traditional instruction. To address this drawback, the present paper sought to propose an ICC pedagogy framework by synthesizing ICC Model as objectives, the Interacting Processesof Intercultural Learning (IPIL) as pathway, and AI-supported multimodality as mediators that collectively renders ICC development more accessible for these students. Unlike previous AI-mediated ICC intervention studies that have primarily targeted at proficient learners, this paper conceptualized AI-supported multimodality as constitutive mediators engaging low-proficiency learners throughout the ICC learning process. The framework comprises a fourfold cycle from cultural identification, structured comparison and scaffolded interactive simulation to critical reflection adjusted by AI-mediated multimodality, which may help reduce these students’ linguistic burdens, facilitate participatory engagement and may have the potential to support self-efficacy throughout the entire process, possibly developing their ICC. By presenting specific teaching scenarios and illustrative examples, it yielded practical values for classroom practice and demonstrated how this proposed framework operates within the IPIL Model. It further advanced the argument that ICC Model, the IPIL Model and AI-mediated multimodality are not merely a theoretical aggregation but an organic integration that interweaves explicit learning goals, recursive learning trajectories, and adaptive, individualized mediation into a coherent ICC learning ecology specifically designed for low-proficiency junior high students.
References
- [1] Xia, Y., Shin, S. Y., & Kim, J. C. (2024). Cross-cultural intelligent language learning system (CILS): Leveraging AI to facilitate language learning strategies in cross cultural communication. Applied Science, 14(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135651
- [2] Liu, J. (2025). Exploring the impact of artificial intelligence-enhanced language learning on youths’ intercultural communication competence. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06033-x
- [3] Tsang, A. (2022). Examining the relationship between language and cross-cultural encounters: Avenues for promoting intercultural interaction. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(2), 98–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1725526
- [4] Bennett, M. J. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(86)90005-2
- [5] Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21–71). Intercultural Press.
- [6] Bennett, M. J. (2017). Developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In Y. Y. Kim (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of intercultural communication. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783665.ieicc0182
- [7] Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters.
- [8] Byram, M. (2021). A model for intercultural communicative competence. In Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence: Revisited (pp. 40–81). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410251
- [9] Deardorff, D. K. (2006). The identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization at institutions of higher education in the United States. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306287002
- [10] Deardorff, D. K. (2009). Implementing intercultural competence assessment. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 477–491). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071872987.n28
- [11] Liddicoat, A. J., & Scarino, A. (2013). Language teaching and learning as an intercultural endeavor. In A. J. Liddicoat & A. Scarino (Eds.), Intercultural language teaching and learning. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482070.ch4
- [12] Tafazoli, D., Gómez-Parra, M. E., & Huertas-Abril, C. A. (2020). A cross-cultural qualitative study on students’ attitudes towards computer-assisted language learning. The Qualitative Report, 25(7), 1841–1855. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4033
- [13] Anwar, K. (2025). LEARN: Improving young learners’ oral performance through AI-guided picture conversations [Paper presentation]. The 13th European Conference on Education 2025: Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 433–442. https://doi.org/10.22492/issn.2188-1162.2025.35
- [14] Xing, P., & Cao, Y. (2025). Multimodal AI can teach you the word, but can it teach you the world? AI & Society, 40, 5619–5620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02329-3
- [15] Cheng, Z., Pan, X., & Gillies, M. (2025). Reducing foreign language anxiety in icebreaker sessions using LLM-controlled multilingual virtual agents in VR [Paper presentation]. ACM International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA ’25), Berlin, Germany. https://doi.org/10.1145/3717511.3749308
- [16] Tang, J., Zhang, A., Sun, M., Leng, X., & Luo, L. (2026). Drivers of willingness to communicate with generative AI: The roles of self-efficacy, grit, speaking enjoyment, and anxiety from a self-determination theory perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754495
- [17] Zheng, Y., Zhou, Y., Chen, X., & Ye, X. (2026). The influence of large language models as collaborative dialogue partners on EFL English oral proficiency and foreign language anxiety. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 39(4), 1092–1118. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2025.2453191
- [18] Alzahrani, F. K. J., & Alotaibi, H. H. (2024). The impact of artificial intelligence on enhancing EFL writing skills among high school students. Journal of Educational and Human Sciences, 34, 226–240. https://doi.org/10.33193/JEAHS.34.2024.482
- [19] Han, D. E. (2020). The effects of voice-based AI chatbot on Korean EFL students’ speaking ability and affective factors. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology for Education, 5(1), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.21742/IJCSITE.2020.5.1.03
- [20] Jeon, J. (2023). Chatbot-assisted dynamic assessment (CA-DA) for L2 vocabulary learning and diagnosis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(7), 1338–1364. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1987272
- [21] Tai, T. Y., & Chen, H. H. J. (2023). The impact of Google Assistant on adolescent EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(3), 1485–1502. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1841801
- [22] Yang, H., Kim, H., Lee, J. H., & Shin, D. (2022). Implementation of an AI chatbot as an English conversation partner in EFL speaking classes. ReCALL, 34(3), 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344022000039
- [23] Ye, Y., Deng, J., Liang, Q., & Liu, X. (2022). Using a smartphone-based chatbot in EFL learners’ oral tasks. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.4018/IJMBL.299405
- [24] Yuan, Y. (2024). An empirical study of the efficacy of AI chatbots for English as a foreign language learning in primary education. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(10), 6774–6789. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2282112
- [25] Qu, Z., & Chen, L. (2026). Simulating the “cultural other”: The impact of GenAI interlocutors on EFL learners’ intercultural communicative competence, speaking anxiety, and learning engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799695
- [26] Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: A practical introduction for teachers. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1c3
- [27] Gui, Y., & Kew, S. N. (2023). Intercultural communicative competence-based English programmes in developing Chinese EFL students’ intercultural competence. In M. Rahim, A. A. Ab Aziz, I. Saja @ Mearaj, N. A. Kamarudin, O. L. Chong, N. Zaini, A. Bidin, N. Mohamad Ayob, Z. Mohd Sulaiman, Y. S. Chan, & N. H. M. Saad (Eds.), Embracing change: Emancipating the landscape of research in linguistic, language and literature (Vol. 7, pp. 192–202). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epes.23097.18
- [28] Lee, T. Y., Ho, Y. C., & Chen, C. H. (2023). Integrating intercultural communicative competence into an online EFL classroom: An empirical study of a secondary school in Thailand. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-022-00174-1
- [29] Gutiérrez-Santiuste, E., & Ritacco-Real, M. (2023). Intercultural communicative competence in higher education through telecollaboration: Typology and development. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 13885–13912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11751-3
- [30] Porto, M. (2013). Language and intercultural education: An interview with Michael Byram. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 8(2), 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554480X.2013.769196
- [31] Matsuo, C. (2012). A critique of Michael Byram’s intercultural communicative competence model from the perspective of model type and conceptualization of culture. Fukuoka University Review of Literature and Humanities, 44(2), 347–380.
- [32] Hoff, H. E. (2020). The evolution of intercultural communicative competence: Conceptualisations, critiques and consequences for 21st century classroom practice. Intercultural Communication Education, 3(2), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.29140/ice.v3n2.264
- [33] Boualli, H., & Boudiaf, A. (2025). Implementing differentiated instruction strategies to develop EFL learners’ intercultural competence: Voices from an Algerian secondary school context. Journal of Languages & Translation, 5(2), 126–137. https://doi.org/10.70204/jlt.v5i2.628
- [34] Kim, S. (2020). Engagement beyond a tour guide approach: Korean and US elementary school students’ intercultural telecollaboration. Intercultural Communication Education, 3(3), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.29140/ice.v3n3.291
- [35] Kusumaningputri, R., & Widodo, H. P. (2018). Promoting Indonesian university students’ critical intercultural awareness in tertiary EAL classrooms: The use of digital photograph-mediated intercultural tasks. System, 72, 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.10.003
- [36] Mu, Y., & Yu, B. (2023). Developing intercultural competence in college business English students: A study of innovative teaching in China. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.101747
- [37] Toscu, S., & Erten, İ. H. (2020). Developing intercultural communicative competence by the means of telecollaboration. Education and Information Technologies, 25, 4517–4534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10174-8
- [38] Vu, N. T., & Dinh, H. (2022). College-level students’ development of intercultural communicative competence: A quantitative study in Vietnam. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 51(2), 208–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2021.1893207
- [39] Liddicoat, A. J. (2024). Developing a critical intercultural perspective in language learning. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching [e-FLT], 21(Supplement), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.56040/atld2121
- [40] Liddicoat, A. J. (2002). Static and dynamic views of culture and intercultural language acquisition. Babel, 36(3), 4–11.
- [41] Liddicoat, A. J. (2004). Intercultural language teaching: Principles for practice. New Zealand Language Teacher, 30, 17–24.
- [42] Liddicoat, A. J. (2008). Pedagogical practice for integrating the intercultural in language teaching and learning. Japanese Studies, 28(3), 277–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/10371390802446844
- [43] Liddicoat, A. J., Papademetre, L., Scarino, A., & Kohler, M. (2003). Intercultural language learning. DEST.
- [44] Christopher, A. (2020). Promoting student intercultural communicative competence in the Japanese context. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R. Gentry (Eds.), Teacher efficacy, learner agency (pp. 321–331). Japan Association for Language Teaching. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-38
- [45] Li, X. (2019). Promoting intercultural competence in EFL classroom. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 9(4), 412–418. https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836/2019.04.008
- [46] Higgins, J. (2024). Virtual bridges to global competence: Cultivating undergraduates’ English communication and intercultural skills through online exchange. Journal of International Students, 14(4), 862–882. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v14i4.6545
- [47] Hoa, C. T. H. (2020). Integrating culture into teaching EFL in general education: A context of Vietnam. Language Related Research, 11(5), 227–252. https://doi.org/10.29525/LRR.11.5.227
- [48] Mullen, A., & Bortoluzzi, A. (2019). Assessing intercultural awareness: Reflection vs. interaction in telecollaboration. Lingue e Linguaggi, 33, 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1285/i22390359v33p211
- [49] Feuerriegel, S., Hartmann, J., Janiesch, C., & Zschech, P. (2024). Generative AI. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 66(1), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12599-023-00834-7
- [50] Law, L. (2024). Application of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) in language teaching and learning: A scoping literature review. Computers and Education Open, 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100174
- [51] Lim, W. M., Gunasekara, A., Pallant, J. L., Pallant, J. I., & Pechenkina, E. (2023). Generative AI and the future of education: Ragnarök or reformation? A paradoxical perspective from management educators. The International Journal of Management Education, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100790
- [52] Li, Y., Shadiev, R., & Chiu, T. K. F. (2026). Applying generative artificial intelligence to task-based language teaching and learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. TechTrends, 70, 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-025-01140-7
- [53] Jewitt, C. (2014). The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (2nd ed.). Routledge.
- [54] Lim, F. V., Toh, W., & Nguyen, T. T. H. (2022). Multimodality in the English language classroom: A systematic review of literature. Linguistics and Education, 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2022.101048
- [55] Favero, L., Pérez-Ortiz, J. A., Käser, T., & Oliver, N. (2026). Maike: Designing a Socratic educational chatbot to foster critical thinking and learner agency [Paper presentation]. CHI’26 Tools for Thought Workshop. ACM. https://ai-tools-for-thought.github.io/workshop/documents/chi26/Favero_et_al_Maike_Educational_Chatbot_TfT_CHI26.pdf
- [56] Neyem, A., González, L. A., Mendoza, M., Alcocer, J. P. S., Centellas, L., & Paredes, C. (2024). Toward an AI knowledge assistant for context-aware learning experiences in software capstone project development. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17, 1599–1614. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2024.3396735
- [57] Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume. Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/lang-cefr
- [58] Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). English Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.
- [59] Hu, T. C., Chao, T. Y., Yang, W. H., & Lien, Y. C. (2023). Enhancing the grammatical competence of middle school EFL low-achievers through a progressive English syntax teaching program. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 55(1), 153–180. https://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.202309_55(1).0007
- [60] Bao, Z., & Peng, C. (2024). The effects of EFL wordlist and proficiency on vocabulary knowledge. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1289106
- [61] Chen, H. (2024). Multimodal digital storytelling presentations in EFL contexts: Learning outcomes, positive/negative affects, and perception between high-/low-achieving learners. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 18(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2023.2255977
- [62] Phan, H. (2025). Exploring factors influencing low-achieving EFL high school students’ motivation in learning English from self-determination perspectives. European Journal of English Language Studies, 5(3), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejels.5.3.139
- [63] Shi, Y., & Chinokul, S. (2024). Relationship between success and failure attributions and self-efficacy of Chinese ELF junior high school students with different English proficiency levels. EMI Journal, 7(3), 58–72. https://so01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/emi/article/view/269223
- [64] Yang, Z., & Xiao, G. (2022). An investigation of the relationship between English classroom environment in rural junior middle school and students’ English learning boredom. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 2(3), 48–52. https://doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v2i3.343
- [65] Ye, X. (2021). EFL learning motivation differences of Chinese junior secondary school students: A mixed-methods study. Education 3-13, 49(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2019.1711143
- [66] Mendrofa, D. F., Gea, J. K., Lase, A., Buulolo, M., Telaumbanua, I. M., & Telaumbanua, Y. A. (2026). Students’ low interest in learning English despite the use of active learning strategies in junior high school. Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia: Teori, 6(1), 150–155. https://doi.org/10.59818/jpi.v6i1.2542
- [67] Sholichah, I. S., Wahjuningsih, E., Puspa, A., & Imamyartha, D. (2025). Integrating Telegram in English class to elevate speaking performance and engagement: A classroom action research in junior high school. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 15(2), 460–484. https://doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v15i2.9855
- [68] Davar, N. F., Dewan, M. A. A., & Zhang, X. (2025). AI chatbots in education: Challenges and opportunities. Information, 16(3), 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16030235
- [69] Mdhlalose, D., & Mlambo, G. (2023). Integration of technology in education and its impact on learning and teaching. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 47(2), 54–63. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2023/v47i21021
- [70] Hosseini, N., & Ebadi, S. (2025). Cross-cultural perspectives on ChatGPT acceptance: A mixed-methods study comparing Iranian EFL learners and international students in the UK. International Journal of Research in English Education, 10(3), 48–68. http://ijreeonline.com/article-1-1042-en.html
- [71] Isaee, H., & Barjesteh, H. (2026). Exploring teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of AI-supported pedagogical tools in English language teaching. Discover Artificial Intelligence, 6, 224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44163-026-00933-w
- [72] Zhang, T., Lai, Y. C., & Yu, P. L. H. (2026). Generative artificial intelligence in K-12 education: A systematic review. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 21(34). https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2026.21034
- [73] Bekdaş, M. (2025). The pros and cons of ChatGPT in foreign language teaching and its impact on student motivation. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ), Special Issue on Artificial Intelligence, 139–156. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/AI.8
- [74] Matjie, M. A., Nethavhani, A., & Matlakala, M. (2026). AI and the digital divide in education. Frontiers in Computer Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2026.1759027
